Historical Development of Arch Dams.
From Roman Arch Dams to Modern Concrete Designs
Patrick JAMES ©
2004
Published in Australian Civil Engineering Transactions
Institution of Engineers, Australia, 2002, Vol. CE43, pp. 39-56 (in English)
Abstract
Dam designs may be divided into three main types : gravity structures
relying on their weight for stability, arch structures using the abutment
reaction forces and buttress dams. The design of an arch dam relies on
the abutment reaction forces to resist the water pressure force and it
requires advanced engineering expertise. The present study demonstrates
that the historical development of arch dams took place in five stages.
The world's oldest arch dams were built by the Romans in France and Spain.
They were followed by the Mongols who built dams in Iran during the 13th
and 14th centuries. However it is not until the 19th century that significant
progress in arch dam design was made. Four remarkable structures were
the Meer Allum dam (India 1804), the Jones Falls dam (Canada 1831), the
Zola dam (France 1854) and Parramatta dam (Australia 1856). Australian
engineers pioneered the use of concrete as a construction material for
arch dams (i.e. 75-Miles and Lithgow No. 1 dams). Modern concrete arch
dam designs were introduced in North-America at the beginning of the 20th
century : e.g., constant-angle arch, double-curvature arch. Since no major
design breakthrough has taken place and modern arch dams are based upon
the single-radius, constant-angle or double-curvature arch design. It
is the writers' opinion that the introduction of concrete as construction
material marked a major innovation in allowing a flexibility in arch shape
design.
Keywords : arch dam, historical development, arch design, Roman dam.
Mongol dam, Australian dam, masonry, concrete, civil engineering.
Introduction
Dam designs may be divided into three main types : gravity structures
relying on their weight for stability, arched structures using the abutment
reaction forces and buttress dams. Historically, the first dams were earthfill
and rockfill embankments [1] (Fig.
1). Masonry gravity dams [2] were
built at sites where good quality stones were available [3].
Sometimes, the dam wall was reinforced by masonry buttresses [4].
Later designs included arch dams, relying on the abutment reaction forces
to resist the resulting water pressure force. A related design is the
multiple-arch buttress dam, consisting of a series of arches supported
by buttresses.
Fig. 1
SMITH (1971) and SCHNITTER (1994) presented comprehensive treatises on
the history of dams. However, arch dam design was rare up to the late
19th century and the historical development of such dams received less
attention, with one notable exception (SCHNITTER 1976).
The present work will show that the historical development of arch dams
progressed during five periods: the Roman arch dams (1st centuries BC
and AD), the Mongol dams (14 and 15th centuries), some advanced masonry
dams in the early 19th century (1804-1856), the Australian concrete arch
dams (1880-1896) and the modern arch shapes at the beginning of the 20th
century (1903-1928).
Terminology
It is inadequate to define a dam as curved or arched because it does
not identify the relative importance of the gravity and the abutment forces
in providing stability. Such a dam should correctly be called a curved
gravity, thick-arch or thin-arch structure. A curved gravity dam
is primarily a gravity structure relying on its weight for its stability
and the wall curvature adds little to its stability. By contrast, an arch
dam would be unstable without the contribution of the abutment reaction
forces. A thick-arch dam relies both on its weight and on the abutment
reaction for its stability. A thin-arch dam is a leaner structure
relying predominantly on the abutment reaction forces for its stability;
typically the ratio of the base thickness to the dam height (E/H) is less
than one third. Practically, the arch dam design is well adapted to narrow
gorges and it produces substantial savings in costs compared to a gravity
dam. In Figure 1, typical cross-sections of gravity and arch dams are
compared.
The basic arch dam shapes are the constant-radius arch, the constant-angle
arch and the double-curvature arch with increasing complexity. The constant-radius
arch design, also called the single-radius arch, is a cylindrical
shape (Fig. 2). The upstream face is usually vertical while the downstream
face is battered. The constant-angle arch design is a variable-radius
arch. The design is based on a constant central opening angle, with the
arch radius increasing from base to crest [5]
(Fig. 2). It results in considerable saving in construction material,
compared to the constant-radius arch design. Lars R. JORGENSEN (1876-1938)
who applied the concept demonstrated that the dam contained minimum material
for an optimum opening angle of 133.6 degrees (JORGENSEN 1915)
[6]. The double-curvature arch design, also called spherical
dome or cupola, has a more complex shape and vertical curvature is introduced.
The shell design results in saving in concrete but requires more technical
skills that for a constant-angle arch dam.
Fig. 2
Roman arch dams
The first arch dam is probably the Roman dam at Glanum [7],
built during the first century BC to supply water to the Roman town (Table
1). The Roman dam was rediscovered in 1763 by Esprit CALVET (BENOIT
1935, GOBLOT 1967). A recent study by AGUSTA-BOULAROT and PAILLET (1997)
indicated that the dam was made of cut stones held together with crampons
and finished with waterproof cordon joints. The site was well selected
(Fig. 3) and the wall abutments were cut in the rock.
Another unusual Roman dam was the Esparragalejo dam, near Merida (Table
1). Built around the 1st century AD for irrigation purposes, the structure
was a multiple-arch buttress dam, 5.6-m high and 2-m thick at base
with circular arches.
Fig. 3
Discussion
The Romans built gravity embankment dams[8],
straight masonry gravity dams[9]
and curved-gravity dams[10]. But
the dam at Glanum was unique. It was a slender thin arch dam (E/H = 0.265).
The writers hypothesise that the arch dam design was introduced because
the site was favourable to a masonry dam (Fig. 3) but nearby construction
materials were scarce.
The arch technique was applied by the Romans to sewers, aqueducts and
bridges, although there is no evidence of scientific design rules, Professor
C. O'CONNOR suggested that, for Roman bridges, the ratio of arch rib thickness
to span was about 1/10 for spans less than 15-m and could be reduced down
to 1/20 for greater spans (O'CONNOR 1993, pp. 168-169). Interestingly
the ratio of dam wall thickness to arch curvature radius was between 1/10
and 1/7 at Glanum: i.e., close to Roman bridge dimensions.
For completeness, some researchers [11]
suggested the existence of further Roman arch dams : e.g., Kasserine (Tunisia),
Dara (Turkey), Çavdarhisar (Kütahya, Turkey), Örükaya (Çorum, Turkey)
[12]. A re-analysis of these structures
demonstrated that Kasserine, Çavdarhisar and Örükaya were curved gravity
dams. In the particular case of Dara, the Byzantine historian Procopius
(6th century AD) indicated a curved dam, possibly as at Kasserine, and
no remain is visible.
Mongol arch dams
During the 13th century, the Mongols invaded and settled in Iran where
they built several large dams [13].
Around the 14th century, they built also some arch dams (Table 1). The
Mongol arch dams in Iran had thick arch walls and they were significantly
higher than the Roman dams. The first arch dam (Kebar, AD 1300) was heightened
to 26 m around AD 1600 while the Kurit dam was 60-m high before heightening
(GOBLOT 1965, 1973). The Kurit dam was extraordinary, having the very-low
crest length to dam height ratio L/H of 0.42 after heightening (probably
less prior). It is interesting to note that these structures were used
for several centuries. Several dams were still standing in the 1970s although
some were subjected to foundation failures : e.g., Chabb Abbasi [14].
The Mongol dams were further equipped with sophisticated outlet systems
(e.g. Kebar, Kurit).
Discussion
Some transfer of expertise on arch dam design might have taken place
from the Romans to the Iranians. After the defeat of Valerian's army [15]
in AD 260, 70,000 men were captured and transported to Persia where they
were forced to work. The Roman army was often involved in large-scale
civil engineering works, in particular aqueduct constructions (FEVRIER
1979, LEVEAU 1991), and it is likely that it was also involved in dam
construction. The Roman prisoners built bridge-weirs and dams in Iran
[16]. Some structures, for example
Shustar bridge-weir, were still in use when the Mongols invaded in Iran.
There is however no proof that the Mongols were aware of the Roman arch
dams.
Both the Roman and Mongol dams in Iran were milestones in arch dam development.
From the 14th century up to the beginning of the 19th century, the arch
dam development was scattered and disparate. An arch dam was built in
Italy at Pontalto in 1612 and the structure was heightened more than six
times over the next 270 years from 5-m to 37.8-m. In Spain, Don Pedro
Bernardo VILLAREAL DE BERRIZ (1670-1740), a Basque nobleman, designed
and built one single-arch and four multiple-arch dams with vertical circular
arches in the 1730s. They were low-head structures used for water power
purposes and four of them are still in good condition (SMITH 1971).
Masonry arch dams in the early 19th century
During the first part of the 19th century, the arch dam design was dominated
by four large structures. These were the Meer Allum (India), Jones Falls
(Canada), Zola (France) and Parramatta (Australia) dams (Table 1).
In India Henry RUSSLE [17], Royal
Engineers, built the extra-ordinary Meer Allum (Mir Alam) dam with a 10-Mm3
water storage capacity around 1804 [18].
The multiple-arch dam was built to supply water to Hyderabad and it is
still in use. It consists of 21 semi-circular vertical arches with span
ranging from 21.3 to 44.8 m.
In Canada John BY [19] (1779-1836)
built several curved masonry dams between 1827 and 1832 as part of the
Rideau waterway system. One, the Jones Falls dam, was a true arch dam
(LEGGET 1957-59, SMITH 1971, SCHNITTER 1994). Completed in 1831, the 18.7-m
high dam was a constant-radius arch wall, 8.4-m thick at base (Table 1).
The dam is still used today for hydropower and navigation purposes.
François ZOLA (1795-1847) [20]
designed two arch dams in 1832 for the water supply of Aix-en-Provence,
France (COYNE 1930, 1956). One, the Zola dam, was built between 1847 and
1854. It was the first arch dam design based on a rational stress analysis
(SCHNITTER 1994). The reservoir was used as a town water supply until
1877. Today it is still in use for flood retention (Fig. 4).
Fig. 4
One of the first significant hydraulic structures in Australia
was the Parramatta dam near Sydney (Fig. 5, Table 1). Built between 1851
and 1856, the 12.5-m high arch dam was designed by P. SIMPSON (1789-1877),
E.O. MORIARTY (1824-1896) and W. RANDLE [21].
It was a constant-radius arch with a cylinder shape and it was heightened
by 3.35-m in 1898 under the supervision of Cecil West DARLEY (1842-1928)
(WADE 1909).
Fig. 5
Discussion
All four structures were constant-radius arches built in cut-stone masonry.
It is generally believed that the thickness of cylindrical arch was calculated
using the thin cylinder formula because the concept was familiar at the
time to engineers involved in shell and ship hull calculations [22].
It is worth noting that three dams were built in the British empire.
Two structures were designed by Royal Engineers : the Meer Allum multiple
arch dam (1804?) and Jones Falls thick arch dam (1831). It is possible
that these designs influenced the Australian engineers with a transfer
of expertise taking place through Royal Engineers. The Royal Engineers
in India had a strong involvement in water supply systems and they were
sometimes called upon in Australia [23].
The writers believe that the Royal Engineers in India were aware of the
successes of Meer Allum and Jones Falls dams [24]
and they might have advised Australian engineers [25].
The four masonry arch dams are still in use for water supply (Meer Allum),
hydropower (Jones Falls), flood retention (Zola) and recreation (Parramatta).
Their long-lasting operation demonstrates the soundness of design and
the quality of the masonry construction.
Concrete arch dams in Australia
Built near Warwick (QLD), the 75-Miles dam was a water supply for steam
locomotives (CHANSON and JAMES 1998b). The first dam was designed by Henry
Charles STANLEY (1840-1921). It was a concrete arch, 5.04-m high, 1.07-m
thick at crest and 2.784-m at the base. The dam was equipped with an overflow
spillway, a scour outlet and a water outlet feeding a water tank located
below beside the railway line. In 1900-1901, the dam was heightened to
8 to 10-m under the supervision of STANLEY. The enlargement included the
addition of three concrete buttresses (Fig. 6). The 75-Miles dam in 1880
was the oldest concrete arch dam built in Australia, and possibly the
world's oldest concrete arch dam. It was the second arch dam completed
in Australia as well as the second dam built entirely of concrete in Australia
[26].
Fig. 6
Completed in 1896, Lithgow No. 1 dam was built as a town water supply
and designed by C.W. DARLEY (Fig. 7). The 10.7-m high dam was a concrete
single-radius thin-arch structure [27].
It was equipped with an overflow section and an outlet system. In 1914
or 1915, the dam was heightened by closing the spillway overflow section
and adding new wing walls. A new overfall spillway was built. The dam
was disused around 1983-84 because the reservoir did not have enough available
head to feed the new wastewater treatment plant. It has been kept empty
since 1986 and it is now used as a flood retention reservoir (Fig. 7).
Lithgow No. 1 dam was the first Australian thin-arch dam, and it is the
world's oldest concrete thin-arch structure. The design by DARLEY became
a standard, commonly called 'Darley-Wade dam' design in Australia (CHANSON
and JAMES 1998b).
Fig. 7
Between 1907 and 1909, Ernest Macartney de BURGH (1863-1929) built two
thin-arch dams, de Burgh dam (1907-08) and Barren Jack City dam[28]
(1908-09), as part of the construction of the Burrinjuck reservoir[29]
(Barren Jack NSW, 1927) (CHANSON and JAMES 1998b). First completed, de
Burgh dam was built to supply water to the railway line supplying the
construction site [30]. It was
a reinforced-concrete single-radius thin-arch (Fig. 8). The concrete wall
was reinforced with 20-lb. rails, 1.52-m apart horizontally and 3.048-m
apart vertically[31]. De Burgh
dam was a true reinforced-concrete arch with rail reinforcement placed
from toe to crest. The wall reinforcement was not a standard design feature
of the Darley-Wade dams. With Hume Lake dam (see below), de Burgh dam
is the world's oldest reinforced-concrete thin arch dam.
Fig. 8
The oldest multiple arch dam in Australia
Completed in 1897, Junction Reefs dam [32]
is a multiple-arch dam, 18.3-m high (Fig. 9). There are 5 elliptical arches,
each with a 8.5-m span and a 60-degrees lean. The dam foundation and outside
walls were made of concrete while the arches and buttresses were built
in brick. Brick construction was selected as the cheapest and quickest
material to build for the arches [33],
concrete being cheaper only for the foundation (SCHULZE 1897). Curiously
the original design included six arches but the final design had only
five arches because of delays in the brick-making. The arches were designed
in the same way as bridge arches [34].
Built to provide hydropower for the nearby gold mine, the dam suffered
heavy siltation and the reservoir is fully silted today. The design of
Junction Reefs has been well-known overseas (WEGMANN 1922, SMITH 1971,
SCHNITTER 1994).
Fig. 9
Modern arch dam designs
The introduction of concrete as a construction material for arch dams
marked a significant advance. Designers were able to consider complex
curved shapes to minimise the construction material and the overall cost.
The developments took place first in North America (Table 1).
Professor G.S. WILLIAMS (1866-1931) designed the world's oldest cupola
dam (Fig. 10). The Ithaca dam (New York, USA, 1903) was designed to be
a 27-m high structure, but construction was stopped when the dam height
reached 9-m because of local opposition (SCHUYLER 1909, WEGMANN 1922).
An interesting construction detail was the brick facing used as concrete
formworks.
Fig. 10
The oldest concrete multiple arch dam was designed by John S. EASTWOOD
(1857-1924). The Hume Lake dam (California, USA 1908) was built in the
Sierra Nevada Mountains in 114 days (WEGMANN 1922) ! The 206-m long 18.6-m
high structure consisted of 12 circular arches (15.24-m span) inclined
at 58-degrees with the horizontal and vertical in the upper 4.88-m section.
The concrete reinforcement included old logging cables (over 12 km) and
railroad scrap iron.
Lars R. JORGENSEN designed the first constant-angle arch dam (Table 1)
[35]. Completed in 1914, the Salmon
Creek dam was 51.2-m high and the opening angle was 113 degrees. The arch
radius ranged from 44.96-m at base to 100.9-m at crest.
Another advanced design was the Coolidge dam (Globe Ariz., USA 1928).
It was the first cupola-shaped multiple-arch structure. Consisting of
three arches, it was designed and constructed by the US Bureau of Indian
Affairs, and it is still in use for irrigation and hydropower.
Discussion
Although dams were built as early as BC 3,000, and concrete was used
by the Romans, the world's first concrete dams were completed in 1872
: Boyds Corner (New York, USA) built between 1866 and 1872[36]
and Pérolles dam[37] (Switzerland)
built from 1869 to 1872[38]. They
were followed by others : e.g., Lower Stony Creek (Australia, 1873), San
Mateo[39] (San Mateo CAL, USA,
1888). All these were gravity dams. In the United Kingdom, the first mass
concrete dam exceeding 15-m in height was the Abbeystead dam completed
in 1881 (BINNIE 1987). In Hong Kong, the Tytam dam, completed in 1887,
was a concrete gravity structure with masonry stone facing. The Sand River
gravity dam, completed in 1906, was the first concrete dam in South Africa
(SCHUYLER 1909, WEGMANN 1922) [40].
In India, the first large concrete structure was the Periar (or Periyar)
dam built between 1888 and 1897 near Madras (SCHUYLER 1909)
[41]. Altogether, the construction of concrete dams began in the 1870s
and intensified at the turn of the century.
Historically, after the Roman and Mongol era, the arch design fell out
of favour until the 19-th century. The development of arch dams was later
facilitated by the introduction of concrete as a construction material.
The world's oldest concrete thick arch and thin-arch dams were single-radius
arches built in non-reinforced concrete [42].
The Australian concrete arch dam design was acknowledged in Europe and
in the USA (SCHUYLER 1909, WADE 1909, WEGMANN 1922, see also SMITH 1971,
SCHNITTER 1994). WEGMANN (in the discussion of WADE 1909) stated that,
in his opinion, "the curved dams built [...] in New South Wales had
been designed more logically" than any other arch dams or curved-gravity
dams.
Masonry construction: cut-stone or concrete
The zenith of stone masonry dam construction was the 1850-1900 period
and the construction techniques were well documented
[43]. Why did the Australian engineers select concrete as dam construction
material ? In Australia, concrete was used for waterworks, weirs and dams
as early as the 1870s. By world standards, large and innovative concrete
works were produced such as the great dome of the Melbourne Public Library
[44] (LEWIS 1988). Concrete construction
for arch dams was selected because of the lower cost, the facility of
construction by unskilled labour and the ease to build irregular shapes
compared to stone masonry construction.
Concrete was the cheapest construction material at the end of the century.
DARLEY (1900) estimated the total cost of Australian arch dam at $8 per
m3 of masonry [45] (Table
2). Table 2 shows that the cost of concrete dam construction dropped
from the 1870s to the 1900s to become lower than that of stone masonry.
DARLEY's choice was consistent, although in advance, with world-known
dam engineers [46]. Interestingly,
brick was selected at Junction Reefs dam as being cheaper than concrete
at this particular site.
Another advantage of concrete over cut-stone is the ease of construction
by labourers and horse carts. At Lower Stony Creek, "owing chiefly
to the scarcity of masons, [...] the dam was built of concrete instead
of masonry" (GORDON 1875, p. 402). Australian concrete dams were
built of blocks of stone set in concrete, a technique called plum concrete
or cyclopean concrete. "Plum stones to the maximum size that can
be handled by two men" were used (DARLEY 1900, p. 56). "All
the concrete [was] mixed by hand [and] wheeled into place in barrows and
trucks" (WADE 1909, pp. 10-12). The concrete was laid in 3-feet courses
"held between mould-boards [formwork] 10 ft long by 3 ft 6 in. high"
(DARLEY 1900, p. 55). By comparison, stone masonry necessitated a skilled
workforce (i.e. stonemason artisans) and a plant to carry stones. For
example, a machinery capable to carry 2 to 6 tons was used to handle and
place the masonry blocks at Parramatta dam (Fig. 5, ASH and HEINRICHS
1996, p. 13). The ease of construction contributed to the lower cost but
also suited well a new continent without skilled manpower.
A third advantage of concrete construction was the flexibility of shape.
"With concrete [...] labour is saved and concrete has the farther
advantage that it can be rammed into any irregular cavity" (DOBSON
1879, p. 111) [47]. Concrete offered
a flexibility of shapes and curved designs (e.g. cupola shape). The introduction
of concrete as a construction material paved the way for the newer modern
designs : constant-angle and cupola arch dams : e.g., Ithaca (1903) (Fig.
10).
Remarks
The development of concrete dam construction under the leadership of
DOBSON and DARLEY marked the end of large stone masonry dam in Australia.
From 1890, the highest large dam in Australia had been a concrete structure
until the 1960s (NIMMO 1966).
An interesting parallel is the construction of masonry arch bridges.
O'CONNOR (1974) showed that the construction of (notable) stone arch bridges
came to a end basically in 1909 [48].
Multiple arch dam design
The development of multiple arch dams attracted some interest in Spain
and Italy. Roman engineers built the oldest multiple-arch dam at Esparrageljo
in Spain (SCHNITTER 1994). In 1530 the architect Baldassare PERUZZI (1481-1536)
proposed a multiple arch dam for the reconstruction of a fishing pond
reservoir in Siena, Italy (SCHNITTER 1994, pp. 118-119). TURRIANO[49]
(1511-1585) recommended also the selection of multiple arch dam "for
use on large rivers" in his Codex (GARCIA-DIEGO 1976). VILLAREAL
DE BERRIZ built five multiple arch-buttress dams in Northern Spain around
1730.
In the 19th century two significant structures were Meer Allum and Junction
Reefs. Although Junction Reefs dam was smaller than Meer Allum, it incorporated
new advanced features : elliptical arches, and a sloping upstream face
which enhances the dam stability. Further advances in designs were made
with the Hume Lake and Coolidge dams.
Summary and CONCLUSION
The historical development of arch dams may be summarised in five stages
(Table 1). The world's oldest arch dams were built by the Romans in France
and Spain. They were followed by the Mongols who built dams in Iran during
the 13th and 14th centuries. However it is not until the 19th century
that significant progress in arch dam design was made. Four remarkable
structures were the Meer Allum dam (India 1804), the Jones Falls dam (Canada
1831), the Zola dam (France 1854) and Parramatta dam (Australia 1856).
All four of them are still in use today and they demonstrated the soundness
of arch dam design. Australian engineers pioneered the use of concrete
as a construction material for arch dams. The world's oldest concrete
arch dam was completed in 1880 : the thick arch dam at 75-Miles. The world's
oldest concrete thin-arch was the Lithgow No. 1 dam (1896). Both the 75-Miles
and Lithgow No. 1 dams were made of non-reinforced concrete.
Modern arch dam designs were further developed in North-America. The
world's oldest cupola dam was completed in 1903 at Ithaca. The first constant-angle
arch da was completed in 1914. Modern multiple arch design were completed
in 1908 (Hume Lake) and 1928 (Coolidge). Since no major breakthrough has
taken place. It is the writers' opinion that the introduction of concrete
as construction material marked a major innovation in arch dam shape.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors acknowledge the help and assistance of a large number of
people, including : the Australian Railway Historical Society, Warwick
section; Mr P. BRIXIE, Warwick QLD; Mr and Mrs J. CHANSON, Paris, France;
Ms CHOU Y.H., Brisbane QLD; Mr B.S.C. HARPER, University of Melbourne
VIC; Mr Michael N. CHRIMES, Libarian, Institution of Civil Engineers,
London, UK; Mr I. HOLT, Lithgow Historical Society NSW; Professor C. O'CONNOR,
Brisbane QLD; Mr J.L. PAILLET, CNRS-IRAA, France; Queensland Railways,
Historical Centre QLD; Mr Michael ROBERTSON, Warwick QLD; Mr P. ROYET,
CEMAGREF, Aix-en-Provence, France; Professor R.L. WHITMORE, Brisbane QLD.
The manuscript was prepared while the first author was a Visiting Research
Fellow at the Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Toyohashi
University of Technology (Japan).
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CHANSON, H., and JAMES, D.P. (2000). "Historical Development of
Arch Dams. From Cut-Stone Arches to Modern Concrete Designs." Internet
resource {http://www.uq.edu.au/~e2hchans/arch_dam.html}.
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a Case study. Rapid reservoir sedimentation in Australia." Internet
resource {http://www.uq.edu.au/~e2hchans/res_silt.html}.
NOTATION
E - dam base thickness (m);
e - dam crest thickness (m);
H - dam height above foundation (m);
L - arch dam crest length (m)
R - radius of curvature (m) of arch wall;
-
arch opening angle;
Appendix I - Dam Engineers of the 19th and early 20th Centuries
Hydraulic engineers
Cecil West DARLEY (1842-1928) was born in Wingfield, County Wicklow,
Ireland and educated at King William's College (Isle of Man). He gained
early engineering experience on railway construction. He arrived in Sydney
in 1867 to join the PWD as Engineer under E.O. MORIARTY, Engineer in Chief
for Harbours and Rivers. He worked on the Newcastle harbour works and
breakwater until 1881. Then he worked as principal assistant engineer,
Water Supply, and he succeeded MORIARTY in 1889 as Chief-Engineer for
Rivers, Water Supply and Drainage. He was later Chief Engineer for the
NSW-PWD from 1896 to 1901. He later returned to Europe.
Leslie Agustus Burton WADE (1864-1915) was born in Singleton NSW (Australia)
and died in Sydney (Australia). He was trained in Australia as a surveyor.
He worked for NSW Department of Public Works from 1880 to 1890, and from
1892 to 1912. On 1 January 1913 he was appointed the first Commissioner
of the newly formed Water Conservation and Irrigation Commission, in charge
for all irrigation programs within New South Wales.
Railway and hydraulic engineers
Ernest Macartney de BURGH (1863-1929) was educated at the Royal College
of Science in Ireland (COLTHEART and FRASER 1987). He gained initial engineering
experience on railway construction in Ireland before emigrating to New
South Wales. He took his appointment in the Public Works Department in
April 1885. He was, there, involved in railway construction as bridge
engineer when Henry J. DEANE was Chief Engineer for Railway Construction
(PWD-Railway Construction branch). Note that, in 1904, de BURGH went to
England and France to study dam construction and water supply. This date
might correspond to his shift of responsibility to dam engineering. He
retired in Australia on 22 November 1927.
Born in Scotland, Henry Charles STANLEY (1840-1921) was educated and
trained on railway construction in Scotland. He migrated to Queensland
in 1862-63, worked on the first Queensland railway line from 1863 to 1865
and was appointed as Engineer on the (Queensland) Southern and Western
Railway in 1866. He became Chief Engineer in 1872 and Chief Engineer for
Railways for Queensland in 1892 until his retirement in 1901 (WHITMORE
1984). There is evidence that H.C. STANLEY had contacts with the NSW-Public
Works Department, In 1878, he had "been placed in communication with
the Railway Department, New South Wales, with the object of considering
the best mode of ultimately connecting the railway system in this colony
[i.e. Queensland] with that of New South Wales." [50].
In the same report, H.C. STANLEY acknowledged his visit to the Public
Works Department in Sydney.
François ZOLA (1795-1847) was a civil engineer of Italian descent. Born
Francesco ZOLLA in Venice, he was at the military academy at Pavia (1810-12),
and he later studied mathematics and surveying at the University of Padua
(1817-18), He was lieutenant in the Imperial Army of Napoleon (1812-15),
then in an Italian Regiment of the Austrian army (1815-21) and later in
the French Foreign Legion (1832-33) (BROWN 1996). He worked as a railway
engineer, including on the Linz-Budweis line, in Austria for 10 years
up to 1832. From 1833, he worked in France, being involved in the construction
of a municipal water system of the town of Aix-en-Provence. The water
was taped from the Cause river in the Infernet gorge (Zola dam, Fig. 4))
and an aqueduct followed the right bank of the valley towards Aix.
Military engineers
Henry RUSSLE (?)[51], Royal Engineers,
built the extra-ordinary Meer Allum (or Mir Alam) dam in India (SCHUYLER
1909, SMITH 1971, SCHNITTER 1994). The multiple arch dam, completed in
1804, was built to supply water to Hyderabad and it is still in use. It
consists of 21 semi-circular arches (12-m high, up to 51-m span). Each
buttress is 12.8-m long (in flow direction) and 7.3-m thick.
John BY (1779-1836), Royal Engineers, was educated at the Royal Military
Academy at Woolwich first. He transferred to Royal Engineers in December
1799. From 1802 to 1811, he served in Canada (Royal Engineers, Québec
City). He served later in Spain and Portugal. He supervised constructions
of Royal Gunpowder Mills (in UK) from 1812 until 1821 He was retired in
1821 and promoted to Lieutenant-Colonel in 1824. He was recalled to work
on the construction of the Rideau waterway, Canada, from May 1826 to May
1832.
Sir Proby CAUTLEY (1802-1871) was cadet at Addiscombe military college
from 1818 to 1819. Arrived in India in 1819, he made important contributions
in palaeontology and irrigation engineering (e.g. BROWN 1978, HAGER 1993).
He participated to the reopening of the Eastern Jumma [52]
irrigation canal in 1830, he constructed the Dehra Dun watercourses (1833-44)
and the Ganges canal (1842-54). The later system [53]
included a 708-km long canal [54]
feeding 4,360-km of distribution channels.
Percy (Pierce) SIMPSON (1787-1877), born, in England, was a lieutenant
in the Royal Corsican Rangers. He later became Governor of Paxos (Ionian
Islands). He migrated to Australia and arrived in 1822. He held various
Government posts in New South Wales. Percy SIMPSON was involved in the
design of the Parramatta dam from 1854 and later he was civil engineer
in charge of the Parramatta Dam Construction Works (Fig. 5).
Sir Arthur COTTON [55] (1803-1899),
Madras engineers, entered the East India Company's military college at
Addiscombe before obtaining a commission in Madras. He constructed major
irrigation works in India, in particular on the Cauvery and Coleroon rivers,
Godavari river and Krishna [56]
river. The Godavari system included the 4-km long Dowlaishwaram weir completed
in 1844 (BUCKLEY 1905), and it supplied 850-km of navigable channels and
2,570-km of irrigation canals. COTTON built also the Bezwada weir on the
Krishna river between 1852 and 1855. The structure was 1,130-m long, 6.1-m
high, and capable to pass a 22,000-m3/s flood. The Krishna
irrigation system included 560 km of navigable and 1,290 km of unnavigable
canals. COTTON visited Australia in three occasions : in Tasmania in 1839
and 1841 to restore his health [57],
in Victoria few years later.
Sir Richard H. SANKEY (1829-1908), Royal Engineers, Madras, was cadet
at Addiscombe and was later educated at Chatham (Royal Engineers). He
served in India from 1848 to 1883. From 1861 to 1877, he worked at Mysore
as assistant to the Chief Engineer (1861-64) and later as Chief Engineer,
Public Works (1864-1877). He developed a systematic hydrological study
of the area, and his expertise was called upon by the Victoria Government
(Australia) for seven months in 1870 [58].
From 1879 to 1883, he was secretary in the Public Works Department, Madras.
Although he retired from the army in January 1884 [59],
he was Chairman of the Irish Board of Works from 1883 to 1896 [60].
Table 1 - Characteristics
of historical arch dams
Dam |
Date |
Design |
Constr. material |
H |
L |
e |
E |
R |
q |
Remarks |
|
|
|
|
m |
m |
m |
m |
m |
deg. |
|
(1) |
(2) |
(3) |
(4) |
(5) |
(6) |
(7) |
(8) |
(9) |
(10) |
(11) |
ROMAN DAMS |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Les Peirou, Glanum (St-Rémy-de-Provence), France |
1st cent. BC |
VA-b |
stone masonry |
14.7 |
23.8 |
3.0 |
3.9 |
28.6 |
48 |
Town water supply. New arch dam built in 1891. [0, 1] |
Esparragalejo, Merida, Spain |
1st cent. AB |
MV-CB |
stone masonry |
5.6 |
320 |
|
2 |
|
|
Irrigation. Rebuilt in 1959.12 buttresses (8.6-m span). [2] |
MONGOL DAM |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Kebar, Qoum, Iran |
AD 1300 / 1600 |
VA-a |
stone masonry |
26 (1) |
|
5 (1) |
9 (1) |
35 (1) |
40 (1) |
Gravity abutments. Fully-silted dam still visible in the 1970s.
[3] |
Kalat-e-Naderi, Mashhad, Iran |
AD 1350 (?) |
VA |
stone masonry |
26 |
74 |
|
|
|
|
[3] |
Kurit, Tabas, Iran |
AD 1350 / 1850 |
VA-b |
stone masonry |
60 / 64 |
27 (1) |
1.2 (1) |
15 (1) |
|
|
Still visible in the 1980s. [2, 3] |
Chabb-Abbasi, Tabas, Iran |
AD 1400 (?) |
VA |
stone masonry |
20 |
|
|
|
|
|
Foundation washout without upper wall collapse. [2, 3] |
EARLY 19th CENTURY DAMS |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Meer Allum, Hederabad India |
1804 (?) |
MV-CB |
stone masonry |
12 |
500 |
|
|
10.6 to 22.4 |
180 |
Designed by Henry RUSSLE. Water supply. Still in use. [2, 4, 5,
6] |
Jones Falls, Ottawa, Canada |
1828-31 |
VA-a |
stone masonry |
18.7 |
106.7 |
6.55 |
8.4 |
53.3 |
|
Designed by John BY. Navigation and hydropower. Still in use. [7] |
Zola, Aix-en-Provence, France |
1847-54 |
VA-a |
stone masonry |
24.5 |
66 |
5 |
13 |
48.2 |
77 |
Designed by Maurice ZOLA. Town water supply. Still in use for flood
retention. [0, 2, 4, 8, 9] |
Parramatta, Sydney, Australia |
1851-56 / 1898 |
VA-a |
stone masonry / concrete |
12.5 / 15.8 |
80 |
2.3 / 1.46 |
4.6 |
48.8 |
|
Designed by P. SIMPSON, E.O. MORIARTY & W. RANDLE. Town water
supply. Still in use for recreation. [10, 11] |
CONCRETE DAMS |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
75-Miles, Warwick QLD, Australia |
1879-80/ 1900-01 |
VA-a / Buttress |
concrete |
5.04 / 9 (?) |
24.5 / 30 |
1.07 / 0.89 |
2.78 |
58.5 |
24 |
Designed by Henry STANLEY. Railway water supply. Still in use. [0] |
Lithgow No. 1, Lithgow NSW, Australia |
1896 / 1914 |
VA-b |
concrete |
10.7 / 11.5 |
54.3 / 55 |
1.07 / 1.1 |
3.32 |
30.48 |
102 |
Designed by Cecil DARLEY. Town water supply. Disused since 1986.
[0, 10] |
Junction Reefs, Lyndhurst NSW, Australia |
1895-97 |
MV-CB |
concrete & bricks |
18.3 |
131.4 |
0.5 |
1.22 |
8.53 |
180 |
Designed by O. SCHULZE. Hydropower for mining. 5 arches. Fully-silted.
[0, 15] |
de Burgh, Barren Jack NSW, Australia |
1907-08 |
VA-b |
reinforced concrete |
4.88 |
30.2 (?) |
0.4 |
|
20.17 |
|
Designed by Ernst de BURGH. Railway water supply. Disused since
1929. Fully-silted. [0] |
MODERN DESIGNS |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Ithaca, New York, USA |
1903 |
VA-b cupola |
concrete & brick facing |
9.1 |
|
0.3 |
2.4 |
17.6 |
|
Cupola designed by G.S. WILLIAMS to be 27-m high. Town water supply.
[6] |
Hume Lake, California, USA |
1908 |
MV-CB |
reinforced concrete |
18.6 |
206.3 |
0.46 |
0.9 |
7.6 |
118 |
Designed by J. EASTWOOD. Fluming and logging pond. 13 buttresses.
[12] |
Salmon Creek, Juneau ALSK, USA |
1913-14 |
VA-b constant-angle |
reinforced concrete |
51.2 |
199 |
1.83 |
14.5 |
45 to 100.9 |
113 |
Constant opening angle desinged by L.R. JORGENSEN. Hydropower. Still
in use. [13] |
Coolidge, Arizona, USA |
1924-28 |
MV-CB cupola |
reinforced concrete |
76 |
280 |
1.2 |
6.1 |
|
|
Cupola arches. Irrigation and hydropower. Modified in 1992-94. Still
in use. [2] |
Notes :
Date : construction period (underlined completion date); 300 /
600 : construction in 300, heightening in 600.
Design : VA = arch; VA-a = thick arch, VA-b = thin arch, MV-CB = multiple
arch-buttress.
Notation : E : dam base thickness; e : dam crest thickness; H : dam height
above foundation; L : arch dam crest length; R : radius of curvature of
arch wall; q : arch opening angle; (1) after 1st dam heightening;
(?) : uncertain data.
References : [0] : authors' inspection (see also CHANSON and JAMES 1998b);
[1] AGUSTA-BOULAROT and PAILLET 1997; [2] SCHNITTER (1994); [3] GOBLOT
(1965, 1973); [4] SMITH (1971); [5] Engineering Record (1903), [6] SCHUYLER
(1909), [7] LEGGET (1957-59, 1972); [8] COYNE (1930); [9] GOBLOT (1967);
[10] WADE (1909), [11] ASH and HEINRICHS (1996); [12] WEGMANN (1922);
[13] JORGENSEN (1915); [14] SCHULZE (1897).
Table 2 - Masonry
dam construction costs
Dam |
Year of completion |
Dam type, masonry type |
Masonry volume |
Masonry cost |
Remarks |
|
|
|
m3 |
US$/m3 |
|
(1) |
(2) |
(3) |
(4) |
(5) |
(6) |
Gouffre d'Enfer, Fra |
1866 |
Gravity, Stone |
39,986 |
8.0 |
|
Lower Stony Creek, Aus. |
1874 |
Gravity, Concrete |
4,000 |
20.7 |
|
Bear Valley, USA |
1884 |
Arch, Stone |
2,599 |
28.9 |
Located 1,890 m altitude |
Betaloo, Aus. |
1890 |
Gravity, Concrete |
45,873 |
12.4 |
|
La Grange, USA |
1894 |
Gravity, Stone |
30,200 |
18.2 |
|
Williams, USA |
1894 |
Gravity, Stone |
3,996 |
13.2 |
|
Junction Reefs, Aus. |
1897 |
Multiple arch, Brick & concrete |
5,352 |
10.0 |
Brick arches. |
Seligman, USA |
1898 |
Gravity, Stone |
13,885 |
10.8 |
|
Australian arch dams |
1900 |
Arch, Concrete |
-- |
8.0 |
Darley-Wade arch dams. |
Barossa, Aus. |
1902 |
Arch, Concrete |
13,743 |
9.2 |
|
Cataract, Aus. |
1907 |
Gravity, Stone |
111,810 |
14.3 |
|
Cross River, USA |
1910 |
Gravity, Stone |
118,506 |
10.5 |
|
Ref.: SCHULZE (1897), DARLEY (1900), SCHUYLER (1909), WEGMANN (1922),
HARPER (1998).
[1]For
example, Sadd-El-Kaffara (Egypt BC 2800-2600), Marib (Yemen BC 750), Panda
Wewa (Sri Lanka BC 400-300), Cornalvo (Spain AD 150-200).
[2]Concrete and stone masonry dams
are commonly called "gravity dams".
[3]For example, Khosr river (Irak
BC 694), Al-Harbaqa (Syria AD 132), Kasserine (Tunisia AD 100-200).
[4]For example, Alcantarilla (Spain
BC 200-100), Proserpina (Spain AD 130).
[5]The concept was first introduced
by Albert G. PELLETREAU (1843-1900) in 1879 (PELLETREAU 1879).
[6] He added, however, that "the
use of a smaller central angle [...] might be more economical, and 120-degrees
or even less [...] might give very satisfactory results".
[7]also called Les Peirou dam. A
newer dam was built in 1891 at the same place, above the Roman dam foundation
(Fig. 3). Today, the site of Glanum is located 1-km South of the town
of Saint-Rémy-de-Provence, France.
[8]For example, Alcantarilla, Spain
BC 200-100; Proserpina, Spain AD 130.
[9]For example, Al-Harbaqua, Syria
AD 132.
[10]For example, Kasserine dam,
Tunisia, AD 100? (SALADIN 1886), Çavdarhisar dam, Turkey (SCHNITTER 1994).
[11]For example, SCHNITTER (1979),
AGUSTA-BOULAROT and PAILLET (1997).
[12]The Çavdarhisar and Örükaya
dams were flood retention structures. Their scour outlet system had cross-section
areas of 11 and 3 m2 respectively (STARK 1957-58).
[13]For example, the Saveh dam
was a gravity dam built in AD 1285 (H = 25 m, L = 65 m).
[14]The complete upper portion
of the dam wall was still standing in the 1970s despite the missing foundation
(GOBLOT 1973). In the authors' opinion, this highlights the soundness
of the arch wall design and the quality of the masonry work.
[15]Roman emperor from AD 253
to 260.
[16]Examples of bridge-weir include
Dezful and Shustar, and an example of dam is Ahwaz (e.g. SMITH 1971, O'CONNOR
1993, SCHNITTER 1994). Shustar dam is also called Band-i-Kaisar or "Dam-Bridge
of Valerian" (O'CONNOR 1993). Ahwaz dam, also called Ahvaz weir,
was a 900-m long masonry weir on Karun river.
[17]There are conflicting informations
on who constructed the dam. SCHNITTER (1994) stated that the dam was built
by a Henry RUSSLE, Royal Engineers. Yet the Imperial Gazetteer of India
(1907-1931) suggested that the Meer Allum dam was built by French engineers
working for the Prime Minister of the Nizam (i.e. ruler of the Hyderabad
State), for the water supply of Hyderabad city (Imperial Gazetteer of
India, 1907-31, Clarendon Press, UK, 1908, Vol. 13, p. 311). The
first author believes that the involvement of Royal Engineers is likely
because the Prime Minister Mir Alam was favourable to British influence
(MILL 1848, Vol. 7, pp. 21 & 25) and the dam was named after Mir Alam
(or Mir Alem). The Hyderabad ruler, Nizam Ali, accepted British ascendancy
in 1767, and his successor Nizam Ali Khan placed his country under British
protection in 1798. But a strong French influence existed from 1795 to
1796-98(?) when French officers under the command of RAYMOND oversaw the
Nizam's army (Teignmouth 1933).
[18]For example, Engineering Record
(1903), SCHUYLER (1909), SMITH (1971), SCHNITTER (1994).
[19]Lieutenant-Colonel, Royal
Engineers. See Appendix I.
[20]Father of the French novelist
Emile ZOLA (1840-1902).
[21]For example, ASH et HEINRICHS
(1996).
[22]For example, two of the designers
of the Parramatta dam, namely SIMPSON and MORIARTY, were respectively
a former officer of the Royal Navy and a naval engineer, both of them
familiar with the calculations of ship hulls (ASH and HEINRICHS 1996,
CHANSON and JAMES 1998a).
[23]Officers serving in India,
at the time, had to take leave in Australia or in South Africa. Hence
there was a stream of visiting Indian engineers in Australia. For example,
Lieutenant-Colonel R.H. SANKEY (1829-1908) visited Australia from India
in 1870 (SANKEY 1871) and advised on the designs of the Malmsbury dam
(1870, Bendigo VIC) and the Lower Stony Creek dam (1873, Geelong VIC).
The Malmsbury dam was equipped with the first Australian stepped spillway
(CHANSON 1997). The Lower Stony Creek dam was the first Australian concrete
dam (HARPER 1998).
[24]Indeed the designer of Jones
Falls dam, John BY, was well-known and respected among the Royal Engineers.
[25]The occasions were the visits
of Sir Arthur COTTON (1803-1899) to Australia. COTTON visited Australia
on three occasions : in Tasmania in 1839 and 1841 to restore his health,
and in Victoria few years later (Private communications from B.S.C. HARPER,
13 Oct. 1998 & M.M. CHRIMES, 27 Oct. 1998). Around 1850, he wrote
a paper on water supply in Australia. His experience with irrigation works
and dam construction in India (e.g. Meer Allum) might have influenced
local engineers.
[26]The first concrete dam was
the Lower Stony Creek dam near Geelong VIC completed in 1873 (LEWIS 1988,
HARPER 1998).
[27]with a vertical upstream face
and battered downstream face (1H:3.6V).
[28]also called Barren Jack Creek
dam.
[29]also called Burrenjick or
Barren Jack dam (concrete gravity structure, H = 61 m, L = 233 m).
[30]It was a narrow-gauge railway
for cement supply and operated from June 1908 to April 1929. The transport
of cement (50,000 tonnes) was a critical factor in the construction of
the Burrinjuck dam given the remote location of the site.
[31]The design was mentioned by
both COLTHEART and FRASER (1987) and NEWLAND (1994). But the book of COLTHEART
and FRASER (1987) associates inaccurately the original design (de BURGH
1908) with photographs of the Barren Jack City dam !
[32]also called Junction Point
Reefs dam or Belubula dam (SCHULZE 1897, SCHNITTER 1994).
[33]There was presence of good
clay for brick-making near the dam site.
[34]"The arches were calculated
in the same way as bridge [...] and the buttresses as bridge piers"
(SCHULZE 1897, p. 171). Professor C. O'CONNOR commented that the arch
shape and brick laying was unusual, the arch bricks being laid inclined
parallel to the upstream arch face while the buttress elliptical shape
was not easily understandable.
[35]This is not strictly correct.
JORGENSEN (1915) mentioned a smaller constant-angle dam designed by an
American H.F. CAMERON in the Philippines around 1913-14. The 30-m high
dam was used for Manilla's water supply.
[36]A major refurbishment took
place in 1990, with the construction of a new spillway (6.1-m wide flip
bucket in the central dam section) and the use of post-tensioned anchors
to increase the dam stability.
[37]also called La Maigrauge dam.
[38]Dam heightening in 1909.
[39]also called Lower Crystal
Springs dam.
[40]Note that the first arch dam
was completed near Johannesburgin 18989 for mining purposes.
[41] In 1870, RANKINE's opinion
was sought as to the dam profile. In his reply, RANKINE extended the method
of de SAZILLY and DELOCRE for the design of gravity dam, first applied
to the Gouffre d'Enfer dam (DELOCRE 1866, RANKINE 1872). This design method
is considered as the basic analysis of the stability of gravity dams.
[42]The designs were based on
the thin cylinder formula (WADE 1909, de BURGH 1917).
[43]For example, WEGMANN (1893),
CREAGER (1917).
[44]It was the world's largest
reinforced concrete dome at the time (1908-13).
[45]Cost in US$ of the time, with
an exchange rate of about £ 1 = US$ 4.9 (SCHUYLER 1909).
[46]In 1909, SCHUYLER indicated
that cyclopean concrete and mass concrete were both cheaper than rubble
masonry and obviously cut-stone masonry for dam construction (SCHUYLER
1909, p. 204). In 1922, WEGMANN discussed the masonry type for gravity
dams : "As far as stength is concerned cut stone would be the best
class of masonry for building a dam, but, on account of it great cost,
it is only used at the faces and for [..] ornamental work at the top."
(WEGMANN 1922, p. 49). [This marked a change of opinion. In 1893, he stated
that "rubble masonry is undoubtedly the best material that can be
used for building a dam" compared to cut-stone masonry, concrete
or rubble (WEGMANN 1893).]
[47]DOBSON refered to the construction
of the Lower Stony Creek dam.
[48]The historical development
of bridges was characterised "by a complete cessation in the construction
of major stone arches (c. 1909)" (O'CONNOR 1974, p. 10). This date
coincided with the construction of the Grafton bridge in Auckland (New
Zealand) (completion 1910, 98-m clear span).
[49]Juanelo TURRIANO (1511-1585)
was an Italian clockmaker, mathematician and engineer who worked for the
Spanish Kings CHARLES V and later Philip II. It is reported that he checked
the design of the Alicante dam for King Philip II.
[50]Report of the Queensland Railway
Commissioner, 1878.
[51]see also Section 2.
[52]The canal was originally built
by the Mughals during the 17th century. The Western Jumma canal was built
during he 14th century, renovated during the 16th century, extended during
the 17th century and re-opened by the British in 1819 (JOYCE 1978).
[53]also called Upper Ganges canal.
[54]Between 1863 and 1865, a quarrel
took place between Sir CAUTLEY and Sir COTTON, because of scour and damage
of some masonry structures of the canal (BROWN 1978, pp. 77-83).
[55]Little information was found
on the chronology of COTTON's military rank. He was major during the Cauvery
and Coleroon rivers works (1835-38), colonel in 1858 and he retired from
the army with the rank of general in 1877 (Dictionary of National Biography,
1917, Oxford University Press, Vol. XXII, Supplement, pp. 488-492).
[56]also spelled Kistna.
[57]In Tasmania, he married Elizabeth
LEARMONTH On 29 october 1841.
[58]He was promoted brevet Lieutenant-Colonel
in June 1869, regimental Lieutenant-Colonel in October 1870 and brevet
Colonel in October 1875.
[59]Promoted Major-General in
June 1883, he retired with the honorary rank of Lieutenant-General.
[60]Hence he knew Robert MANNING
(1816-1897), Chief Engineer of the Office of Public Works, Ireland.
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